The Characteristics of Direct Object, Indirect Object And Adjunct

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background Of Study

          One important aspect of teaching English syntax (to native and non native undergraduate students alike) involves the balance in the overall approach between facts and theory. We understand that one important goal of teaching English syntax to undergraduate students is to help students enhance their understanding of the structure of English in a systematic and scientific way. Basic knowledge of this kind is essential for students to move on the next stages, in which they will be able to perform linguistic analyses for simple as well as complex English phenomena. This new introductory textbook has been developed with this goal in mind. The book focuses primarily on the descriptive facts of English syntax, presented in a way that encourages students to develop keen insights into the English data. It then proceeds with the basic, theoretical concepts of generative grammar from which students can develop abilities to think, reason, and analyze English sentences from linguistic points of view.

In a sentence, the subject and verb may be followed by an object. An object is a noun or pronoun that gives meaning to the subject and verb of the sentence. Not all sentences contain objects, but some may contain one or more. There are two kinds of objects within a sentence: direct and indirect objects. A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb. Sometimes a direct object is followed by an indirect object. An indirect object is the noun or pronoun for which the action is done.

1.2. The Purpose Of Study

Within this book, we will learn about the fundamental notions of English grammar. We start with the basic properties of direct object, indirect object and adjunct. These chapters guide students through the basic concepts of syntactic analysis such as the realizations of direct object, indirect object and adjunct.

CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

2.1.            Direct Object

We now turn to a fourth type of grammatical function: the Direct Object (DO). Consider the following sentences:

1)       His girlfriend bought this computer.

2)      That silly fool broke the teapot.

3)      Our linguistics lecturer took this photograph.

4)      My sister found this book.

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CHAPTER III

CONCLUSION

To end this chapter, the table  summarises the main form–function relationships. The central concern of this chapter has been to demonstrate the fact that there exists no one-to-one relationship between function and form in language, and this is why the two notions need to be kept apart.All grammatical functions can be performed by different form classes, and all form classes can perform a variety of grammatical functions, as the table below shows.

Form                Direct Object                         Indirect Object            Adjunct

Noun Phrase                        ü                                     ü                         ü

Prepositional Phrase            ü                                      -                          ü

Adverb Phrase                                 -                                       -                          ü

Finite Clauses

That-clause                        ü                                      -                            -

Wh-clause                         ü                                     ü                          ü

Clauses introduced by 

because, when, etc.           -                                        -                           ü

Nonfinite Clauses

to-infinitive clause           ü                                       -                           ü

bare infinitive clause        ü                                       -                           ü

-ing participle clause        ü                                       -                           ü

-ed participle clause         ü                                       -                           ü

Small Clause                     ü                                      -                           ü

REFERENCES

Miller, Jim. 2002. An Introduction to English Syntax. Edinburg: Edinber

 University Press Ltd.

Aarts, Bas. 1997. English Syntax and Argumentation. London: Machmillan Press

Ltd.



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Sociolinguistics Study

CAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A.    Background of Study

Sociolinguistics is the study of how language serves and is shaped by the social nature of human beings. In its broadest conception, sociolinguistics analyzes the many and diverse ways in which language and society entwine. This vast field of inquiry requires and combines insights from a number of disciplines, including linguistics, sociology, psychology and anthropology.

Sociolinguistics examines the interplay of language and society, with language as the starting point. Variation is the key concept, applied to language itself and to its use. The basic premise of sociolinguistics is that language is variable and changing.  As a result, language is not homogeneous — not for the individual user and not within or among groups of speakers who use the same language.

CAPTER II

DISCUSSION

A.     General overview

There are numerous definitions of sociolinguistics. However, each of these definitions does not fail to acknowledge that sociolinguistics has to do with language use and a society’s response to it. Let us examine them.

1.      The study of the relationship between language and society, of language variation, and of attitudes about language.

2.      A branch of anthropological linguistics that studies how language and culture are related, and how language is used in different social contexts.

3.      A study of the relationship between language and social factors such as class, ethnicity, age and sex.

4.      The study of language in social contexts.

5.      The study of the sociological factors involved in the use of language, including gender, race, class, etc.

6.      The study of stylistic and social variation of language (vernacular).

7.      The study of language in relation to its socio-cultural context.

8.      Sociolinguistics is the study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context on the way language is used.

9.      The study of social and cultural effects on language.

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CHAPTER III

CLOSING

A.    Conclusion

Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society. Sociolinguistics differs from sociology of language in that the focus of sociolinguistics is the effect of the society on the language, while the latter's focus is on the language's effect on the society. Sociolinguistics overlaps to a considerable degree with pragmatics. It is historically closely related to linguistic anthropology and the distinction between the two fields has even been questioned recently.

It also studies how language varieties differ between groups separated by certain social variables, e.g., ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, age, etc., and how creation and adherence to these rules is used to categorize individuals in social or socioeconomic classes. As the usage of a language varies from place to place, language usage also varies among social classes, and it is these sociolects that sociolinguistics studies.

The social aspects of language were in the modern sense first studied by Indian and Japanese linguists in the 1930s, and also by Gauchat in Switzerland in the early 1900s, but none received much attention in the West until much later. The study of the social motivation of language change, on the other hand, has its foundation in the wave model of the late 19th century. The first attested use of the term sociolinguistics was by Thomas Callan Hodson in the title of a 1939 paper. Sociolinguistics in the West first appeared in the 1960s and was pioneered by linguists such as William Labov in the US and Basil Bernstein in the UK.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics

http://logos.uoregon.edu/explore/socioling/

Marcyliena Morgan, "Speech Community." A Companion to Linguistic Anthropology, ed. by A.

Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman. 1983. An Introduction to Language (third edition). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Zdenek Salzmann, Language, Culture, and Society: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology. Westview, 2004.




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Historical Linguistics (Linguistics Study)

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1.  Background Of Study

            The history of the language can be traced back to the arrival of three Germanic tribes to the British Isles during the 5th Century AD. Angles, Saxons and Jutes crossed the North Sea from what is the present day Denmark and northern Germany. The inhabitants of Britain previously spoke a Celtic language. This was quickly displaced. Most of the Celtic speakers were pushed into Wales, Cornwall and Scotland. One group migrated to the Brittany Coast of France where their descendants still speak the Celtic Language of Breton today. The Angles were named from Engle, their land of origin. Their language was called Englisc from which the word, English derives.

1.2.  The Purpose of Study

            Within this paper, we will learn about the history of language, how language change, why language changes and the Sub-field of historical linguistics study, such as Comparative linguistics, Etymology, Dialectology, Phonology, Morphology and syntax.

CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

2.1.The history of English

Traditionally and in fact most appropriately, the history of English is divided into four distinct periods: Old, Middle and Modern English.

Ø  Old English

The invaders dominated the original Celtic-speaking inhabitants, whose languages survived largely in Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall. The dialects spoken by the invaders formed what is now called Old English. Later, it was strongly influenced by the North Germanic language Norse, spoken by the Vikings who settled mainly in the north-east. The new and the earlier settlers spoke languages from different branches of the Germanic family; many of their lexical roots were the same or similar, although their grammars were more distant, including the prefixes, suffixes and inflections of many of their words.

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CHAPTER III

CONCLUSION

Traditionally and in fact most appropriately, the history of English is divided into four distinct periods: Old, Middle, Early Modern and Modern English. Old English covers a period from the second half of the first millennium to roughly around 1100, ending shortly after the Norman Conquest. It is a period in which English still was a dominantly synthetic language and it is certainly different from any English spoken since. The language of this period was influenced by and in contact (language contact) with Latin and what is called Old Norse, i.e. the language of Scandinavian seafarers and settlers. As in later stages, English lexicon at this stage of its development was (amongst other features) characterized by frequent borrowings from contact languages, i.e. by taking over words from them. With the beginning of the

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REFERENCES

Bragg, Melvyn. 2003. The Adventure of English: The Biography of a Language.

New York: Arcade Publishing.

Bryson, Bill. 1990. Mother Tongue: English and How it Got That Way. New

York: Perennial.

McCrum, Robert, William Cran, and Robert MacNeil. 1986. The Story of

English. New York: Viking.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_linguistics (April 11, 2012)